WiTMeMo '05 Paper   
[WiTMeMo '05 Technical Program]
MobiNet: A Scalable Emulation Infrastructure for Ad Hoc and Wireless Networks
Priya Mahadevan
UC San Diego
pmahadevan@cs.ucsd.edu
Adolfo Rodriguez
IBM, RTP and Duke University
David Becker
Duke University
becker@cs.duke.edu
Amin Vahdat
UC San Diego
vahdat@cs.ucsd.edu
Abstract
The current state of the art in evaluating applications and
communication protocols for ad hoc wireless networks involves either
simulation or small-scale live deployment. While larger-scale
deployment has been performed, it is typically costly and difficult to
run under controlled circumstances. Simulation allows researchers to vary system configurations such as MAC layers and routing protocols. However, it requires the duplication of
application, operating system, and network behavior within the
simulator. While simulation and live deployment will clearly
continue to play important roles in the design and evaluation of
mobile systems, we present MobiNet, a third point in this
space. In MobiNet, the communication of unmodified applications running on
stock operating systems is subject to the real-time emulation of a
user-specified wireless network environment. MobiNet utilizes a cluster of emulator nodes to appropriately
delay, drop or deliver packets in a hop by hop fashion based on MAC-layer protocols, ad hoc routing protocols, congestion, queuing, and available bandwidth in the network. MobiNet infrastructure is extensible, facilitating the
development and evaluation of new MAC layers, routing protocols,
mobility and traffic models. Our evaluations show that MobiNet emulation is
scalable and accurate while executing real code, including video
playback.
1 Introduction
Wireless mobile systems have become increasingly popular in the past few years. Of particular interest has been the proliferation of ad-hoc
wireless networking where mobile nodes form peer relationships with
one another to relay information through the network.
One key challenge in this area is evaluating these protocols and
applications in a scalable and
accurate manner. It is difficult and costly to deploy development software on a large number of real mobile nodes. Further, live deployment makes it difficult to obtain reproducible results. To overcome these limitations, researchers have
developed simulation engines to mimic the behavior of
mobile systems by modeling packet loss, queuing delays and MAC-layer
behavior. Application code is typically re-written to
conform to the simulation environment. This approach requires increased development effort and also leads to loss in accuracy as the behavior of a unmodified application
running over a real OS, network stack and hardware is lost. Finally, accurate simulation environments face significant scalability limitations, often topping out
at a few tens of mobile wireless hosts.
MobiNet is an emulation environment designed to overcome some of the
accuracy and scalability challenges in mobile evaluation. The goal of
our work is to allow users to evaluate the
behavior of their wireless systems under a range of
conditions in a controlled, reproducible environment.
System aspects that we would like to allow users to control include MAC layers, routing protocols, mobility patterns and traffic models. MobiNet supports flexible deployment of the above models, thereby allowing researchers to study and improve the performance of wireless applications and protocols.
To support the above types of experiments,
we designed MobiNet to emulate a target mobile network on a scalable
LAN cluster with gigabit interconnect, enabling researchers to
deploy unmodified IP-based software and subject it to faults, varying
network conditions, different routing protocols, and MAC layer
implementations. Edge nodes running user-specified OS and application
software are configured at the IP-layer to route packets through one
or more MobiNet core nodes that cooperate to subject the traffic
to the bandwidth, interference patterns, congestion, and loss profile of the target network
topology.
We must address several key challenges to successfully emulate large-scale multi-hop wireless networks. Behavior of MAC layer (e.g., various flavors of 802.11) significantly impacts the performance of wireless networks. Node mobility plays an important role in wireless environments. Ad hoc routing protocols are critical for relaying packets. Therefore our emulation supports: i) various MAC layers ii) routing protocols iii) node movement patterns. Each of the above layers must be deployed
in a modular manner, allowing users flexibility and control over their experiments. Further, we would like to structure our emulation in a scalable, accurate and extensible manner. Our scalability tests show that
a single MobiNet core can
forward up to 89,000 packets per second. Using just one MobiNet
core and 2 physical edge nodes, we have been able to emulate a
200-node topology, forwarding application packets in real time. Along with scalability, MobiNet also provides good accuracy. We validated our MAC and routing protocols against other simulators and found that our results compared favorably with those obtained from ns2.
We also present results from running unmodified binaries (video playback) that demonstrate the power and flexibility of our system.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows:
Section 2 describes
the details of the MobiNet framework. We briefly describe MobiNet's accuracy
and scalability in section 3. Section 4
describes our experiences in deploying real unmodified applications
over MobiNet. We discuss related work in section 5 and present our conclusions in section 6.
2 The MobiNet Framework
Figure 1:
MobiNet Architecture
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We borrowed some basic design principles from the publicly available ModelNet [10], an emulation environment for wired and static networks. However, MobiNet required a complete reimplementation of the system given the inherent differences between wired and wireless networks.
The MobiNet architecture is composed of Edge Nodes and Core Nodes as shown in Figure 1. Edge nodes
in MobiNet can run arbitrary architectures and operating systems and could even be a combination of different devices such as laptops, PDAs, etc. Our current experiments have been performed on edge nodes running linux.
They run native IP stacks and function as they would in real
environments with the exception that they are configured to route IP
traffic through MobiNet cores. MobiNet core nodes run a modified
version of FreeBSD to emulate topology-specific and hop-by-hop network
characteristics.
Target applications run on edge nodes as they would in a real setting.
However, to decrease the number of client (edge) machines required for
large-scale evaluations, our architecture allows for Virtual Edge Nodes (VNs). VNs enable the multiplexing of multiple
application instances on a single client machine each with its own
unique IP address. Since MobiNet clients use internal IP addresses
(10.*), the number of clients that can be multiplexed onto an edge
node is not limited by IP address space limitations, but rather by the
amount of computational resources (e.g. threads, memory) that the
target application uses. All VNs are configured to route their
traffic through one of the cores. The MobiNet cores emulate wireless network behavior at multiple layers
while eventually routing packets to the edge node hosting the
destination VN.
Emulation at the core involves capturing node movement patterns, dynamic routing, and MAC layer effects such as collisions and capture. To this end, we have a mobility module, routing module and MAC layer module in the MobiNet core. The physical
layer also plays an important role in wireless networks, hence we have support for free space propagation
model and two-ray ground reflection model[1]. By dividing mobile emulation behavior under functional lines, MobiNet's modules
are more easily developed and replaced. This allows experiments to
use different combinations of modules, leading to a more flexible and
powerful emulation framework.
Figure 2:
MobiNet Modules
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Figure 2 depicts the interactions between
the different modules in MobiNet.
The mobility model is implemented as
a user level application that downloads new node movement files into the
MobiNet core's kernel at user specified time intervals. The routing module uses this information to find
new routes when existing routes become stale. Once a packet enters
the system, it is handed up by the ipfw module in the FreeBSD kernel
to the MobiNet module. The routing module within MobiNet is now
responsible for finding a path in order to send this packet to its
destination. The path is basically a list of nodes through which the
packet has to traverse before reaching its destination. Once the path
has been obtained, the MAC-layer module emulates the packet according
to the specified attributes of each pipe in the path. Pipes in
MobiNet correspond to the transmission capacity of their associated
nodes. The packet traverses through every intermediate node's pipe,
thereby being subjected to queuing delays and congestion at every
node. Once the packet successfully reaches the last hop in the path,
the packet is sent to the virtual node hosting the packet's
destination. Thus, transmitting a packet from source A to destination
B via nodes C, D, and E will involve sending the packet through pipes
A, C, D and E before finally relaying it to destination B.
Each pipe maintains a drop-tail queue for storing packets that need to be
transmitted from the corresponding node. All
attributes of pipes such as bandwidth, queue size and loss rate are
user-configurable and can be
downloaded into the core's kernel using the sysctl function call
in FreeBSD.
MobiNet emulation is a three step operation:
topology creation, assignment of VNs and pipes to hosts and cores
respectively, and application execution. A user creates a desired
topology, MobiNet distributes pipes associated with each node in the topology
across the cores to distribute emulation load, assigns VNs in our
emulated topology to edge nodes, and configures and executes the
applications in the MobiNet emulation framework. We now describe each of MobiNet's modules in more detail.
2.1 Mobility
The mobility module is a user-level application that generates various
node positions and neighbor lists consisting of nodes within a node's
transmission range. This information is downloaded in real time
into the kernel of the MobiNet cores at regular user-specified
intervals. Alternatively, we could calculate these positions and
neighbor lists in real time within the core's kernel. Doing so,
however, would cause significant overhead since floating point
operations would be required in the kernel.
One interesting parameter in MobiNet's emulation is that of the
interval used to refresh node positions within the core's kernel. If
the interval is too high, valuable kernel processing is wasted in
reading new node coordinates for values that have changed little. If it is too low, it leads to inaccurate results. MobiNet attempts to bridge the
gap between kernel performance and accuracy by choosing an interval
value that provides good performance and accurate results under a wide
variety of emulations. We found that setting the node position
refresh rates to 0.5 seconds provides good results for our test
scenarios, with node velocities up to 20 m/s. We stress that the refresh interval is user configurable and node coordinates can be downloaded into the kernel at a much lower granularity.
Our current mobility application supports the random waypoint mobility
model described in [1], though MobiNet can use arbitrary
movement models. In our applications, users specify the topology size,
the duration of the experiment, the maximum speed of nodes, the
movement pause time, and the interval of desired output.
The mobility application creates time-indexed movement files that include the
current positions of each node and the neighbor lists for each node.
These movements files can be read by the MobiNet core during the
execution of the experiment.
2.2 MAC Layer Emulation
Our modular emulation approach is amenable to a wide range of models
for the MAC layer. We implemented our MAC layer based on IEEE's 802.11 standard specification for RTS-CTS-Data-ACK in MobiNet. The details of our implementation are
described in [5]. The physical layer plays an important role in the performance and
energy consumption of mobile and wireless systems. The free space
model and the two-ray model predict the received power as a
deterministic function of distance [1]. Our physical link
model supports free space propagation and two-ray ground
reflection model [1]. Power level at which packets are received determines if one or both packets are dropped due to noise or if one packet is captured by the other.
2.3 Dynamic Routing
As with all other MobiNet modules, the routing layer is implemented as
a pluggable module in the FreeBSD kernel. The MobiNet core makes a call
to this routing module to retrieve paths for the packets that it
receives. We have implemented the Dynamic Source Route
(DSR) [3] protocol in the MobiNet core.
While we chose DSR in our current implementation, DSR can be replaced with any other ad-hoc routing
protocol such as AODV [8], DSDV [9], or
TORA [7]. Our generic design and the fact that
each component in MobiNet is pluggable and not dependent on other
components enable us to implement a broad range of routing modules in the
kernel with relative ease. Detailed implementation is described in [5].
3 Evaluation
In this section, we briefly describe our experiences using MobiNet for evaluating ad hoc wireless applications. Our evaluation focused on testing MobiNet for scalability as well as accuracy.
We have written and tested a simple application in native TCP/IP and
in the ns2 network simulator to enable comparisons between MobiNet
emulation and ns2 simulation. The application establishes simple
constant bit rate (CBR) streams between senders and receivers using
UDP. Each sender sends data to exactly one receiver. Our CBR
communications consists of 64-byte packets sent from each node
(sender) at the rate of 4 packets per second. While it is impossible
to guarantee that both versions function identically, the simplicity
of our test application leads to it exhibiting very similar behavior
in both environments. Using this application, we have executed a
number of experiments to evaluate the performance, scalability, and
accuracy of the different modules in MobiNet. The goal of our
accuracy and routing overhead tests were to reproduce the experiments
described in [1].
In all of our experiments, MobiNet edge nodes consisted of Pentium 4
2.0 GHz PCs with 512 MB memory running linux version 2.4.2. We use a
single Pentium 3 dual processor with 2 GB memory supporting FreeBSD
version 4.5 as our MobiNet core. Our experiments on ns2 were conducted
on a machine similar to our edge nodes. MobiNet provides various
packet statistics that enable us to determine the number of packets
sent, packets dropped due to MAC collision, and other useful metrics.
Likewise, we make use of ns2 trace files to extract these metrics.
With our mobility application, we simulated random waypoint mobility
using various seeds and pausetime values, resulting in different movement patterns. For most of our
experiments, we specified a neighbor-refresh interval of 0.5 seconds.
We found that our interval of 0.5 seconds gives us comparable results
with lower intervals such as 0.2 seconds and also with the continuous
movement pattern that ns2 supports.
3.1 Core Performance
One of the experiments we have executed, tested the ability of the
MobiNet core to process packets. The goal was to find the number of
packets per second the MobiNet core router could emulate without
saturation.
The setup comprised of 200 VNs that were distributed across 2
edge nodes (100 virtual IP addresses mapped to each edge node). We disabled the mobility module to decrease the overhead due to DSR. Thus DSR is invoked only once for a source-destination combination. Once a route to a particular destination has been found by
the routing module, the route does not change. A sender application was associated with every VN on one edge machine, while a listener was associated with every VN on the other edge machine. Each sender application sent 64-byte UDP packets at a constant bit rate to a specific listener, thereby accounting for 100
flows from the sender edge machine to the lister edge machine. Each source sent packets in exactly 1 hop to exactly one
destination which was also the node's sole neighbor. Thus, there were no packet collisions. We also set the DIFS and SIFS values
in the 802.11 specifications to zero as the goal was to gauge the maximum
number of packets that could be sent through a single MobiNet core. MobiNet core runs with a clock resolution
of 10Khz, meaning that we are able to accurately emulate each packet
hop to within 0.1 ms accuracy. Even for end-to-end path lengths of 10
hops, packet transmission delays are accurate to within 1 ms,
sufficient for our target wireless scenarios, especially when
considering end-to-end transmission, propagation, and queuing delays.
This accuracy holds up to and including the peak emulation rate
because MobiNet's emulation runs at the kernel's highest priority
level.
Table 1:
Forwarding capacity at the Core
CPU |
Pkts/sec |
Pkts/sec |
Pkts/sec |
utilization |
forwarded |
forwarded |
forwarded |
at core |
for 1 hop |
for 3 hops |
for 5 hops |
50% |
43.5K |
25K |
16K |
70% |
63.5K |
38K |
23K |
90% |
78K |
47K |
30K |
100% |
89K |
50K |
35K |
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We measured throughput in terms of packets per second and CPU
utilization at the core for different packet sending rates.
We ran similar tests but with different topologies,
so that each packet from the sender must traverse 3 hops and 5
hops respectively before reaching the destination. Again, we ensured
that there were no collisions and nodes just had their communication
partners as their neighbors. As the number of hops increased, we
found that the total number of packets that the core could forward per
second decreased as it now had to perform more work per packet.
We summarize our results in Table 1.
3.2 MAC layer and routing accuracy
Validating the behavior of our MAC layer implementation is difficult
as no known emulation or simulation technique can accurately predict
the bit error rates or radio interference under arbitrary deployment
scenarios. To gain some baseline
confidence in the accuracy of our 802.11 MAC model, we conduct
micro-benchmarks to compare MobiNet's MAC layer performance with that
of ns2 for a variety of topologies and packet transmission rates.
Since the packet transmission rate is dependent upon the timing and
rate of collisions, we hypothesize that if MobiNet and ns2 deliver the
same packet throughput under a range of conditions, the packet
collision and backoff behavior is likely to be similar. We experimented with
several topologies and packet sending different rates. For each of our topologies, we found that MobiNet and ns2 had similar packet delivery ratio. Our detailed results for different topologies are described in [5].
The next step was to validate routing accuracy in our emulator.
We achieved this by comparing
experimental results obtained from MobiNet to that from ns2 for our
simple CBR communication. We used the 802.11 MAC protocol and DSR
implementations available in ns2. Using our mobility model, we
generated movement files that were used by ns2 and MobiNet.
We varied the maximum speed and pause time in our experiments and for each of the above, we found that MobiNet's packet delivery ratio matches that of ns2. We also compared the number of control packets transmitted by our DSR implementation with that of ns2 in the above experiments and again found that MobiNet compared favorably with ns2. Again the experiments and results are described in [5]. All the above tests helped validate the MAC and routing accuracy of our emulator.
3.3 Scalability
Given the accuracy of our emulation experiments, we next consider the
scalability of our emulation environment.
One of the main benefits of MobiNet over using a simulator such as ns2
is experiments can be run in realtime. Simulators that do not run in realtime have an advantage that however complex the experiment, it eventually completes. On the other hand emulators that run in realtime find the load too great at some stage. However, for typical experiments, MobiNet is capable of forwarding up to 89,000 packets per second and thus has a distinct advantage over ns2 with respect to time taken to complete experiments upto this capacity. The structure of the simulation environment means that simulating a given configuration typically proceeds slower than realtime for the scales that we consider.
To quantify this benefit, we compare the time required to
run experiments in ns2 and MobiNet as a function of numbers of CBRs. We used a 200 node
topology with nodes distributed randomly in a 3000 meter by 600 meter
rectangle (resulting in the same node density as our previous
experiments). For MobiNet, the 200 nodes were distributed across 2
MobiNet edge nodes. The ns2 experiments were run on a single machine with the same configuration as the MobiNet edge node. We disabled node mobility in
this case to reduce the overhead due to finding routes with DSR. Here,
DSR only needs to find routes to destinations once (at the start of the experiment).
We varied the number of CBR sources from 10 to 40, with each sender
once again transmitting 64-byte packets at the rate of 4 packets per
second. Each node sent a total of 1200 packets.
Figure 3 shows the computation time necessary to
execute the experiment for MobiNet emulation and ns2 simulation. This
is the time it takes for the experiment to complete
multiplied by the number of machines used in the experiment. In real
time, this experiment takes 5 minutes, as it takes each CBR source 300
seconds to transmit its share of packets. As a result, MobiNet using
3 machines (2 edges and 1 core) emulates the experiment in 15
minutes. In contrast, ns2 simulation time of the experiment increases
linearly with the number of CBR nodes. In the case of 40 nodes
transmitting, the ns2 simulation lasted 134.5 minutes, compared to
MobiNet's 15-minute emulation.
Figure 3:
Scalability in MobiNet vs. ns2 as a function of time
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4 Deploying Real Applications
In this section we demonstrate the utility and generality of our
infrastructure by deploying and evaluating real unmodified code, a
video player over MobiNet. We used XAnim as our sample
application. XAnim is a program that plays a wide variety of
animation, audio and video formats on Unix X11 machines. Running the
same application on ns2 would be difficult to impossible. Our
goal was to study the performance of the the video player in a
ad hoc wireless network as a function of node movement.
We started with a wireless topology consisting of 50 nodes moving
according to the random waypoint movement model, where the maximum
random speed was set to 1 m/s. The nodes in our topology were hosted
on two edge machines, thus each edge node was responsible for 25
VNs. We randomly chose two VNs from our topology. XAnim
was deployed over one of the VN, while the display was set to the
other VN. Communication between these two nodes ran over the x11
protocol. The VN executing XAnim would send its packets to the MobiNet
core, which would use DSR to find a route to the VN hosting the display.
The packets were emulated according to our 802.11
implementation in the MobiNet core and then sent to the destination VN
which would display the movie. Due to node movement, if existing
routes went stale, DSR was used to find fresh routes to the
destination VN.
Table 2:
x11 packets exchanged between 2 VNs for various maximum speeds
Pause time (s) |
1 m/s |
5 m/s |
20 m/s |
0 |
14500 |
13708 |
5490 |
30 |
15596 |
13728 |
13031 |
60 |
14927 |
14565 |
13207 |
300 |
16200 |
16100 |
16086 |
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The video clip was replayed in a continuous fashion for 2 minutes.
For lower node mobility scenarios, packet drops due to broken routes
was low and we observed that the video played in an almost continuous
manner. In a highly mobile environment, we found that the video clip
would stall for a while during packet drops. Once routes were found,
the clip would start playing again.Unlike CBR communication, in the x11 communication that takes
place between the XAnim nodes, loss of vital packets due to node
movement leads to the application stalling for a while. We recorded the total number of XAnim packets exchanged between the two
VNs for different values of pause time and for different values of maximum speed. We averaged the results over several runs
of the experiment and present them in Table 2.
5 Related Work
Zhang and Li [ 12] have built an infrastructure for testing mobile ad hoc networks. However, their work does
not support any routing protocol. Furthermore, their scheme does not
restrict application bandwidth, making experimental results inaccurate
for a range of important application characteristics. Noble and Satyanarayanan [ 6] use trace-based network
emulation to play back measured mobile network characteristics to real
applications. Our approach generalizes this technique, allowing users
to generate their own mobility scenarios.
Netbed [ 11] is a network testbed comprising real mobile nodes
using real mobile hardware and software. In contrast to our work, Netbed is a real testing environment, not an emulation or
simulation infrastructure. Emwin [ 13] and JEmu [ 2] are network emulators similar to MobiNet. However, they both do not have the level of scalability that we have achieved with MobiNet. There is also no support for plugging in ad hoc routing protocols.
Judd and Steenkiste [ 4] describe an approach for wireless experimentation using a real MAC layer. While using a real MAC layer
has advantages, scalability is limited as discussed above. Comparison
between different MAC layers also becomes more difficult to perform.
6 Future Work and Conclusions
The overall goal of our work is to support controlled experimentation
of a variety of communication patterns, routing protocols, and MAC
layers for emerging ad hoc and wireless scenarios, including laptops, and
PDAs. Current approaches to such
experimentation include simulation and live deployment.
While each clearly has its relative benefits and will continue to play
an important role in mobile system design and evaluation, this paper
argues for the power of modular, real-time emulation as another
important point in this space.
To this end, this paper presents the design and evaluation of MobiNet, a
scalable and accurate emulator for mobile, wireless and ad-hoc
networks. MobiNet provides accurate mobile and wireless emulation,
comparing favorably with existing network simulators while offering
improved scalability. It allows researchers to rapidly
experiment with a variety of MAC, routing, and communication (layers
2-4) protocols that may not be easily available in live deployments. MobiNet also supports the deployment of different mobility and traffic models.
We further show the power of our emulation environment by running an unmodified video playback application communicating across an emulated large-scale multi-hop 802.11 network using DSR on stock hardware/software.
In most of our experiments, we validated MobiNet against ns2 to
increase our confidence in the accuracy of our results. We felt that
this was an appropriate choice because ns2, with mobile/wireless
extensions, has undergone significant development and validation and
remains one of the most popular simulators available. We leave
comparisons against real wireless networks for future work. A detailed study of application performance under different traffic traces is another ongoing effort.
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MobiNet: A Scalable Emulation Infrastructure for Ad Hoc and Wireless Networks
Priya Mahadevan,
UCSD, pmahadevan@cs.ucsd.edu
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